Secondly, Abdel Halim Khaddam’s stance on the developments of the Arab-Israeli conflict in 1973-1974
was a pivotal decision made during the Arab Summit Conference held on November 26, 1973, in Algiers. The conference determined that the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) should be recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people in any future peace conference to be held in Geneva. Following the Arab Summit Conference on November 27, 1973, the United States of America and the Soviet Union extended invitations to Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Israel to participate in the peace conference scheduled for December 21, 1973, in Geneva. This invitation was based on Resolution 338.
In light of these developments, Henry Kissinger embarked on a series of travels between the Arab countries involved in the conflict with Israel, aiming to garner support for the peace conference and persuade them to participate. On December 7, he visited Damascus and held his first meeting with President Hafez al-Assad, seeking Syrian approval for attending the conference. During the six-hour discussions, President Assad emphasized the necessity of the Palestine Liberation Organization’s participation as a key party, on equal footing with the other parties involved in the conflict. President Assad also stressed the requirement for a complete withdrawal from the Golan Heights. However, Kissinger confirmed the peace conference without addressing President Assad’s demands.
On December 8, 1974, Syria announced its refusal to attend the conference if the issue of prisoner of war releases was considered part of the ceasefire agreement. Syria argued that this issue should only be discussed within the framework of Israel’s comprehensive withdrawal plan from the occupied territories and not as a separate topic.
In the same vein, Abdel Halim Khaddam conveyed to the visiting French parliamentary delegation in Damascus on December 11, 1974, that Syria would not participate in the International Peace Conference unless European and African countries were also represented. Khaddam expressed concerns about the conference being limited to the United States of America and the Soviet Union, which he believed were favoring their own interests in the proceedings.
On the other hand, Kissinger made a visit to Israel to engage in consultations regarding the Geneva conference. The Israeli leadership had set certain conditions for their participation in the conference. Firstly, they insisted that the conference should not be under the supervision of the United Nations. Secondly, they expressed their unwillingness to sit together with the Syrians in one location, let alone allowing Palestinian participation in the conference.
Kissinger succeeded in persuading Israel to attend the conference by convincing them to withdraw their first condition, as the United Nations’ supervision would be merely formal. He also addressed the second condition by emphasizing that the Syrians themselves were not keen on attending the conference. Regarding the third condition, he assured them that the Palestinians were not invited to the conference.
In response to these developments, Syria released a statement on December 17, 1973, announcing its refusal to participate in the Geneva Conference. The statement explained that the Palestine Liberation Organization, which was relevant to the conference, had not been invited. Thus, Syria believed that the decisions made during the conference would be in favor of Israel at the expense of Arab interests.
Furthermore, on December 20, 1973, Abdel Halim Khaddam embarked on a tour of Arab countries. During this tour, he conveyed letters from President Hafez Al-Assad to his Arab counterparts, addressing the current situation in the Arab region. The letters justified Syria’s decision not to participate in the Geneva Conference and reiterated Syria’s principled stance against Israeli aggression on Arab lands and the legitimacy of the Palestinian people’s struggle.
It appeared that Syria was well aware of the United States’ intention to utilize the conference as an official platform to conceal its planned projects and circumvent decisions related to the Palestinian issue. Syria perceived this as a means to enable Israel to pursue its aggressive policies and establish dominance in the region.
Thus, the Geneva Conference took place on December 21, 1973, at the Palais des Nations in Geneva, with the participation of foreign ministers from Egypt, Jordan, Israel, the United States, and the Soviet Union. However, Syria and the PLO did not participate. On the same day, the Syrian government released a statement expressing readiness to engage in any efforts aimed at implementing Security Council resolution 338, which called for a ceasefire, the initiation of peace talks, and the implementation of resolution 242.
The conference concluded on December 22, 1973, without addressing the rights of the Palestinian people and without achieving the desired outcomes. Due to the consistent and principled stance taken by the Syrian leadership, American diplomacy shifted its focus and resources to the Egyptian front in order to negotiate a new agreement for the separation of forces in Sinai.
In response to these developments, Abdel Halim Khaddam embarked on a tour to the Arab Gulf states on January 7, 1974, visiting Abu Dhabi, Muscat, Qatar, Oman, and Kuwait. During this tour, he emphasized the importance of supporting Syria’s steadfastness and explained the reasons behind Syria’s refusal to attend the Geneva Conference, highlighting the absence of potential for meeting Syrian demands and the exclusion of Khaddam from any of the confrontational countries in a partial solution. He emphasized the need to start with the separation of forces as the first stage of withdrawal, focusing initially on the Egyptian and Syrian fronts, and considering the achievement of separation on one front to be followed by its removal and the isolation of enemy forces on the other front.
Similarly, the United States pursued its efforts in line with its diplomatic approach adopted at the Geneva Conference. An Egyptian-Israeli agreement, known as the Kilometer Agreement, was reached on January 18, 1974, concerning the Cairo-Suez road. The agreement entailed a ceasefire between Egypt and Israel on land and sea, as well as the implementation of the separation of military forces.
The Syrian leadership strongly condemned the Egyptian-Israeli agreement, considering it a unilateral settlement that weakened the Arab position and resulted in a halt in fighting on the Egyptian front while increasing the Israeli threat on the Syrian front. In light of these concerns, President Hafez Al-Assad visited Moscow on January 19, 1974, to discuss potential developments on the Syrian front following the agreement between Egypt and Israel. President Al-Assad warned Soviet officials about the possibility of Israel launching an aggression against Syria after the agreement with Egypt. He stated that Syria would accept the Egyptian-Israeli agreement only if it served as the initial stage for a complete Israeli withdrawal from Arab lands and guaranteed the rights of the Palestinian people. During the discussions, President Al-Assad also addressed the issue of Soviet guarantees to secure Israel’s withdrawal from the Golan.
Similarly, during his talks with the American Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, who visited Damascus on January 20, 1974, Abdel Halim Khaddam expressed Syria’s position. He stated that Syria did not oppose the disengagement agreement in Sinai but believed that any disengagement in Sinai should be linked to a similar agreement on the Syrian front. Khaddam emphasized the solidarity between Egypt and Syria during the war and stressed the need for this unity to continue in the political arena.
Thus, Abdel Halim Khaddam’s position on the ongoing negotiations between Egypt, Syria, and Israel was characterized by a rejection of a unilateral partial solution between the confronting countries and Israel. He believed that the fight should continue until all occupied Arab territories were liberated. If a solution were to be reached, it had to be comprehensive, involving both Syria and Egypt.
American diplomacy made efforts to achieve a similar agreement on the Syrian front as the Egyptian-Israeli agreement. American Secretary of State Kissinger employed President Anwar Sadat to exert pressure on President Hafez al-Assad to agree to a peace agreement with Israel. The United States aimed to stabilize the situation in the Golan Heights to alleviate the Arab oil embargo imposed on them. Consequently, attempts were made to reach a Separation of Forces agreement on the Syrian front.
Before entering into negotiations for a disengagement agreement with Israel, Syria engaged in diplomatic efforts to strengthen its position and garner Arab support. On January 24, 1974, General Hikmat Shihabi was sent to discuss recent developments with Algerian President Houari Boumediene, while delegates were also dispatched to Iraq for the same purpose.
At the domestic level, a mini-Qatari conference of the Baath Party was held on January 28, 1974, under the leadership of President Hafez al-Assad and Abdel Halim Khaddam. The conference addressed the issue of force separation on the Egyptian front and its implications on the war scene. It was explained that the recent clashes between Syrian and Israeli forces on the Golan front, following the conclusion of the separation of forces agreement between Egypt and Israel, were merely a means of pressuring Syria to accept the disengagement agreement on the Syrian front.
Consequently, the matter of disengagement on the Golan front entered a critical phase in February. A quadripartite conference, involving the presidents of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, was held in Algeria on February 13, 1974. It was agreed that the oil embargo would be lifted upon the completion of the disengagement on the Golan front. The conference also emphasized the importance of implementing the resolutions of the Algiers Summit of 1973. Based on these discussions, delegates were sent to the United States and European countries to address the issue of disengagement on the Golan front.
Simultaneously, on February 28, 1974, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko visited Damascus. He held meetings with President Hafez al-Assad and Abdel Halim Khaddam to discuss further actions and strategies.
Developments regarding the issue of the separation of forces in the Golan area have highlighted the importance of Soviet participation and ensuring any settlement that occurs is not solely driven by American initiatives. After the talks, a joint statement was issued, emphasizing the demand for Israel’s withdrawal from all occupied territories and the protection of the rights of the Palestinian people. It was agreed that the issue of disengagement in the Golan should be linked to a timetable for Israel’s complete withdrawal from all occupied territories. The participation of the Soviet Union in the ongoing efforts was deemed necessary to reach a solution in the region. The Soviet Foreign Minister emphasized that the separation of forces was of lesser importance to the Soviets, and they intended to address the Palestinian issue and advocate for Israel’s responsibility to restore the rights of the Palestinian people.
On March 7, 1974, during a press conference in Washington, President Nixon announced the willingness of both Syria and Israel to send representatives to Washington for discussions on disengagement. The United States of America expressed its readiness to utilize all available means to facilitate an agreement.
In response, Abdel Halim Khaddam stated that Syria considers Israel’s withdrawal from all occupied Arab territories and the recognition of the national rights of the Palestinian people as prerequisites for any agreement concerning the separation of forces on the Golan front. Furthermore, on March 8, 1974, President Hafez al-Assad affirmed Syria’s alignment with Resolution 242, which called for the liberation of territories occupied in 1967 and the restoration of the rights of the Palestinian people. He emphasized that Palestine is not separate from the Arab world but rather an integral part of southern Syria.
These developments were accompanied by the announcement made by Arab ministers in Vienna on March 18, 1974, to lift the oil export embargo to the United States. However, Syria and Libya opposed this decision.
Abdel Halim Khaddam expressed this rejection during a press conference held in Tunisia on March 27 of the same year. He held Egypt responsible for leaving Syria isolated against the common enemy. He emphasized the importance of implementing Algeria’s decisions and indicated Syria’s readiness to conclude the disengagement process on the Golan front. He stated that this readiness was contingent on ensuring Israel’s withdrawal from Quneitra, the capital of the Golan Heights. Additionally, he stressed Syria’s opposition to increasing oil exports to the United States before Israel made concessions and demonstrated its readiness to withdraw from the occupied territories and recognize the rights of the Palestinian people.
On April 8, 1974, U.S. Secretary of State Kissinger visited Damascus in an attempt to encourage direct negotiations between Syria and Israel. He met with President Hafez al-Assad and his Foreign Minister Abdel Halim Khaddam. During the meeting, Khaddam reiterated Syria’s position, emphasizing the necessity for Israel to withdraw from Quneitra and commit to a timetable for withdrawing from all territories.
Kissinger informed them that Israel was prepared to withdraw from Quneitra but was holding onto three strategic positions in the hills of the Golan.
In early May, the negotiations for disengagement entered their final phase. Kissinger returned to Damascus and continued his negotiations with President Hafez al-Assad and Foreign Minister Abdel Halim Khaddam during his fifth tour in the region on May 3, 1974. He stayed for 23 days, shuttling between Syria and Israel until he successfully reached an agreement with Syria to conclude a separation of forces agreement on the Golan front.
Abdel Halim Khaddam actively participated in the negotiations for the agreement, which was signed on May 28, 1974, at the United Nations Palace in Geneva. Prisoners were exchanged on the same day. The agreement was implemented in four stages, with the final stage completed on June 26, 1974. As a result, Israel withdrew from 21 fortified positions in the Golan, all of which were located behind the purple line, representing the ceasefire line prior to the 1973 war.
It should be noted that during the negotiations for the disengagement agreement on the Golan front, Syria consistently advocated for the rights of the Palestinian people and emphasized the necessity of an Israeli withdrawal from the occupied Palestinian territories. Kissinger’s trips to and from Syria shed light on President Hafez al-Assad’s balanced approach, showcasing his clear goals and determination to achieve them. This has garnered significant attention from the global media.
Abdel Halim Khaddam, the Foreign Minister, shares the same goals and effectively represents President Assad’s ideas in conferences and summits, vocalizing the same aspirations. Assad and Khaddam have chosen to engage with the United States government on equal terms, refusing to negotiate with Israel, which enjoys U.S. support, while asserting Syria’s rights and defending its sovereignty.
Therefore, on June 1, 1974, Abdel Halim Khaddam announced that the separation of forces agreement would not prevent any Palestinian commando operations on the Syrian border. He reiterated that Syria’s position remained unchanged: to support, assist, and protect the Palestinian resistance. In a statement to journalists on June 4, 1974, he strongly emphasized the Palestinian people’s right to employ all methods of struggle against Israeli occupation, and reaffirmed Syria’s support for the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the sole representative of the Palestinian people following the disengagement on the Syrian front.
Syria continued its political efforts to advance the settlement process and facilitate the convening of the Geneva Conference with the participation of all relevant parties, including the PLO. Meanwhile, discussions commenced between the United States and the Soviet Union in order to expedite the convening of the Geneva Peace Conference based on Security Council resolution 338, efforts were made to address the Arab-Israeli conflict, which was a matter of global concern. Given its fundamental relations and impact on any potential resolution, the Palestinian resistance found itself directly involved in the ongoing developments and their consequences. It became evident that the Palestinian decision-making process played a crucial role, capable of influencing the trajectory of the settlement proposed within the Arab arena. In light of this, Syria has been attentive to the Palestinian cause and has provided its support.
Syria firmly believes that the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) should serve as the exclusive and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. This belief stems from Syria’s recognition that excluding Palestinian representation would neutralize the central issue at the core of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Consequently, the failure to address this aspect has hindered the progress towards a comprehensive settlement.
In line with these considerations, President Hafez Al-Assad held consultations with Yasser Arafat on July 25, 1974. During their meeting, he reaffirmed his support for the Palestinian resistance and recognized the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people, as per the resolutions adopted at the Arab Summit Conference in Algiers. President Al-Assad called for the prompt convening of the Arab Summit Conference to review the Arab positions regarding the decisions made at the Sixth Arab Summit Conference in Algeria, particularly those pertaining to the Palestine Liberation Organization. He emphasized that any party seeking peace should engage in discussions with the Palestine Liberation Organization to address Palestinian rights.
To achieve this objective, the Conference of Arab Foreign Ministers was convened in preparation for the Arab Summit Conference on October 24, 1974. During the conference, Abdel Halim Khaddam presented the developments in the Arab-Israeli conflict since the October war and put forth a working paper containing the political and military proposals of his government. These proposals had been previously discussed with American President Gerald Ford during Khaddam’s visit to Washington on August 22, 1974, and their subsequent meeting. In his discussions with President Ford, Khaddam expressed his gratitude to President Hafez al-Assad and acknowledged his political acumen, which had resulted in the conclusion of a separation of forces agreement between Syria and Israel in the Golan Heights. This agreement was seen as a significant step toward achieving a lasting and just peace in the region. President Ford affirmed the United States’ unwavering commitment to continue advancing towards a lasting settlement in the area. Khaddam echoed the same sentiments, emphasizing his country’s eagerness to hold the Geneva conference at the earliest opportunity with the participation of all relevant nations, including the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the legitimate representative, and to ensure the implementation of Security Council resolution 338, which would safeguard the rights of Arabs, facilitate a complete withdrawal from the occupied territories, and secure the rights of the Palestinian people. He called for the clarification of the Arab struggle’s objectives at the present stage, reiterating the recent summit conference’s resolutions regarding the liberation of all territories occupied during the June war, the restoration of Jerusalem, and the commitment to safeguard the national rights of the Palestinian people. Furthermore, Khaddam emphasized the collective Arab commitment to strengthen the subjective, military, economic, and political forces of the Arab nation and to foster Arab coordination in all these domains.
On the following day, discussions were held on the working paper presented by Abdel Halim Khaddam, which outlined a plan to support the confrontation states and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
The Seventh Arab Summit Conference commenced on October 26, 1974, in Rabat, with the participation of all Arab countries except Iraq and Libya due to their opposition to the ceasefire resolution during the October 1973 war. Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, presented a document signed by numerous individuals representing the occupied areas, urging the conference to reaffirm the status of the PLO as the legitimate representative.
During the closing session of the conference, President Hafez Al-Assad and the Arab heads of state emphasized the need to address the demands of the Palestine Liberation Organization, emphasizing that the organization should be recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.
Several decisions were made during the conference to support the PLO in its ongoing struggle to secure Arab recognition.
On the other hand, the Council of the League of Arab States adopted a resolution on September 12, 1974, in which it included the Palestinian issue as a separate item on the agenda of the twenty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly.
Abdel Halim Khaddam, on September 14, 1974, stated that President Assad had instructed the Syrian delegation heading to the United Nations to present the Palestinian cause as an independent issue, highlighting its historical and political dimensions. The delegation was tasked with emphasizing the dangers of Israel’s continued occupation of Arab territories and its defiance of United Nations resolutions. Khaddam further emphasized that the PLO delegation would receive substantial support from the Assembly. This decision carries significant importance as it signifies the renewed consideration of the Palestinian issue by the international community, which had been closed since 1952 and was only mentioned in the report of the Commissioner-General of the Relief Agency for Refugees.
As a result of Arab solidarity and joint efforts within the Arab summit conferences and the League of Arab States, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 3236, affirming the inalienable rights of the Palestinian people in Palestine. The resolution recognizes their right to return to their homes and properties, calls for the realization of these rights, and emphasizes that the Palestinian people play a crucial role in establishing a just and lasting peace in the Middle East. Additionally, the resolution acknowledges the right of the Palestinian people to regain their full rights through all means in accordance with the purposes of the United Nations Charter.
It can be argued that one of the most significant consequences of the October 1973 war on the Palestinian cause was its elevation to a central issue in the Arab-Israeli conflict, receiving international recognition as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Syria played a supportive role in this regard, with its Foreign Minister, Abdel Halim Khaddam, actively working towards meeting Palestinian demands and ensuring their prominent position in Arab summit conferences until the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) gained recognition as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. This development marked a new phase in the settlement process, prompting increased efforts by the United States of America and Israel to reach a unilateral agreement with Egypt and isolate it from the Arab-Israeli conflict arena.
Conclusion of the research
Based on the information presented above, Abdel Halim Khaddam’s efforts in the Arab-Israeli conflict were closely tied to the October 1973 war, in which Syria and Egypt fought together as agreed upon in their political program within the Union of Arab Republics.
Khaddam played a pivotal role as a liaison between his country and other Arab and foreign nations, effectively conveying Syria’s cause and highlighting the events unfolding in the Arab region to various parts of the world. His objective was to shed light on the injustices and grievances faced by Syria in its interactions with Israel. This approach was an integral part of Syrian foreign policy, as Khaddam aimed to serve the interests of his entire nation. He firmly rejected individual agreements that Egypt had made with Israel, viewing them as a betrayal of the foundation laid by the two countries and a deviation from the fundamental principle of resisting Israel rather than engaging in negotiations with it. Khaddam advocated for upholding the Arab demands and rights, emphasizing the need to liberate all Arab lands that had been seized by Israel. He prioritized the continuation of the fight for the complete liberation of Arab territories.