The conflict between Hafez and Rifaat al-Assad and its effects on governance in Syria
Summary
Secrets of the Syrian Regime as Written by Abdul Halim Khaddam, the Architect of Syrian Policy in Lebanon and a Member of the Old Guard
The Assad family, which has ruled Syria since 1971 when former President Hafez al-Assad took power, remains shrouded in mystery. Over the years, numerous analyses and reports have been published about the ruling structure that has endured for over 53 years. Both Western and Arab writers have explored the history and secrets of this family, including through personal memoirs. For instance, the late Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass revealed some of these secrets in multiple volumes of his book The Mirror of My Life, while Syrian Vice President Farouk al-Sharaa, who has held the position since 2006, addressed aspects of the family’s policies in his book The Lost Narrative.
However, what the late former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam wrote was particularly intriguing because he was one of the few individuals who earned Hafez al-Assad’s trust. This trust dated back to Assad’s rise to power in 1970 through a military coup against his Baath Party comrades, who had ruled Syria since 1963. According to the BBC, Khaddam was the chief architect of Syrian policy in Lebanon from the time Syrian forces entered the country in 1976. This role ultimately led to his falling out with Assad’s son, Bashar, who, upon assuming power, sought to eliminate figures associated with the “old guard.” Khaddam transitioned from a loyalist to a dissident, declaring, “The choice was between the nation and the regime. I chose the nation because it endures, while the regime is a temporary phase in history.” He ultimately sought asylum in France, resigned from all official positions, and accused Bashar al-Assad of threatening to assassinate former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, who was later killed in a bombing.
Power and Security
In this context, Al-Majalla magazine has published a series on the power struggle between the “two Assad brothers,” Hafez and Rifaat, during the early 1980s and their rivalry over power. Rifaat, the younger brother of former President Hafez al-Assad, was known as “The Commander” in Syria, “Abu Duraid” (after his eldest son), the leader of the “Defense Companies,” and the “Butcher of Hama” due to his role in the brutal suppression of the anti-government uprising in Hama in 1982, which resulted in an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 deaths. He attempted a coup against his brother Hafez in 1984, declared himself Hafez’s rightful successor after his death in 2000, and in 2011 called for his nephew, Bashar al-Assad, to step down following the outbreak of the Syrian uprising.
Initially, Rifaat was influenced by his older brother, who was seven years his senior, and followed in his footsteps from a young age. He joined the Baath Party, and when the party’s military committee seized power in March 1963—where Hafez was a key member and the mastermind—Rifaat was attending the military academy in Homs, positioning himself close to his mentor, who at the time was the commander of the Syrian Air Force. Their partnership was tested during the 1966 Baathist power struggle that resulted in a coup against President Amin al-Hafiz’s government. As a result, Baath Party founders Michel Aflaq and Prime Minister Salah al-Din al-Bitar were sentenced to death, while numerous other figures were exiled. According to Syrian writer Ibrahim al-Jabin, this period saw Rifaat being tasked with “establishing a military force to safeguard the regime.” This move effectively positioned Hafez as the leader in the presidential palace, with Rifaat serving as his enforcer on the streets, securing Damascus with an iron grip.
Between December 23, 1973—when Hafez Assad formed his government—and 1976, Syria witnessed major events, including the October 1973 war against Israel, a rift with Egypt, severe tensions with Iraq, and the outbreak of the Lebanese civil war. During this period, Arab financial aid flowed into Syria, enabling large-scale infrastructure and industrial development projects. According to Al-Majalla, Khaddam’s notes indicate that “Major Rifaat Assad was at the center of negotiations with corporate agents seeking contracts in Syria.”
The Beginning of the Rift
In April 1975, following the Baath Party’s regional congress, Major Rifaat Assad, either directly or through his loyal bloc, launched an attack on the party’s regional leadership, the government, the prime minister, and several ministers, aiming to oust Deputy Secretary-General Abdullah al-Ahmar, Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Ayyoubi, Minister Mohammed Haidar, General Naji Jamil, and General Mustafa Tlass. According to Al-Majalla, at that time, members of the party’s national leadership requested a meeting with President Hafez Assad to inform him of Rifaat’s interference and pressure on congress members. Upon meeting them, Hafez reportedly said, “Why don’t you defend the national leadership in the congress? Why don’t you stand up to him there?”
Khaddam recalled that he was sitting at a distance from the president and responded, “I am surprised by this meeting. You are the party’s leadership, and you have the authority to make decisions. Instead of complaining to the Secretary-General (Hafez Assad), hold a meeting and expel Rifaat from the party and the military. This will protect the leadership and the party.” Hafez replied, “Indeed, why do you come here to complain? Take responsibility.”
During the evening session of the congress, Khaddam launched a scathing attack on Major Rifaat Assad, accusing him of “spreading disorder within the armed forces, engaging in corruption, and attempting to undermine the party through factionalism.” Despite this, Khaddam acknowledged that Rifaat had always treated him with courtesy and respect. He concluded his speech by addressing Hafez directly: “You must choose between your brother and your comrades…”